““A weapon of mass destruction (WMD) is capable of inflicting great numbers of human casualties over a large area.””
This broad definition of a WMD is traditionally attributed to special classes of weapons such as nuclear, biological and chemical. However, this interpretation of the term presents an open-ended approach. The cause of war or the use of any WMD is a complex issue that needs to be analyzed thoroughly.
The powers of this world have been competing for resources and more power throughout history; and history reveals the tragic events that have transformed Earth into a bloodland. Studying history, one is able to infer that WMDs have only evolved to the modern-day classifications of nuclear, biological and chemical. While these three avenues provide concrete examples for a tangible WMD, it’s possible to deduce a more abstract understanding of WMDs as used in the past. This abstract approach yields a broader understanding of the impacts of a WMD and the possibility for future trends.
Gaining this insight, one establishes the grounds for arguing the potential for mass media to act as a weapon of mass destruction. Mainstream media holds the largest influence on public opinion, and public opinion is the driving force influencing a democratic government. Manipulating public opinion serves as a catalyst for achieving a deceptive political agenda.
The 1997 film, Wag the Dog, directed by Barry Levinson illustrates the power of mass media and television. The film casts reputable actors such as Robert De Niro (Conrad Brean) and Dustin Hoffman (Stanley Motss) and presents the eye-opening phenomenon of television’s influence on the average person. Wag the Dog is a fictional movie, but its themes and message parallel similar events throughout history.
In the film, the current President of the United States is up for reelection when a sex scandal is revealed. In an effort to hold on to public support and get reelected, the world becomes a stage. De Niro, an unclassified aid to the President, becomes in charge of ensuring the President’s reelection. De Niro heads to Hollywood to meet up with a producer, Hoffman, to craft a “virtual war” with Albania. This artificial war is aimed to rally public support and loyalty for the President.
Throughout the film, a series of staged war footage and photos are taken and displayed on major news outlets. As a result, the world begins to buzz about the news of war, and the trend begins. Other news outlets begin covering the story, and the lie grows with time.
The relevance of Wag the Dog supporting the influence of media can be summed up with De Niro’s quote:
““54, 40 or fight. What does that mean?... Remember the Maine... Tippecanoe and Tyler, too... They’re war slogans Mr. Motss. We remember the slogans, we can’t even remember the fucking wars. Y’know why? Cause its show business. That’s why I’m here. Naked girl, covered in Napalm. Five marines Raising the Flag, Mount Suribachi. V for Victory, Y’remember the picture, fifty years from now, they’ll have forgotten the war. Gulf War? Smart bomb, falling down a chimney. Twenty-five-hundred missions a day, 100 days, one video of one bomb Mr. Motss. The American people bought that war.””
This quote illustrates a commonly overlooked trend in warfare, the increasing use of media.
War tactics evolve with time and technological innovation. Traditional weapons and strategies adapt to meet the needs of the time. Traditional WMDs were once nonexistent, which provides evidence of this constant process of evolving war.
The onset of World War II presents a time when propaganda played a vital role in promoting the development of the war by manipulating innocent people. The 1930s is an appropriate time to begin analyzing the use of media in support of a war effort; since the 1930s technology has only advanced offering more media outlets and techniques to reach the masses. The more complex the media sphere becomes, the more attention and skepticism that needs to be applied.
In many cases, war propaganda undergoes an undeclared war against its own citizens. While opposing nations combat one another, a faction of the war effort remains on the homefront to rally public support, recruit new soldiers and subdue conflicting media projections.
Nazi Germany vividly illustrates the use of war propaganda, but propaganda was employed by numerous nations throughout the war including the United States and Great Britain.
““If you tell a big enough lie and tell it frequently enough, it will be believed.””
The time interval between World War I and WWII offered a time for reflection and strategic analysis for planning future wars. The German Navy understood the economic significance that can fuel and sustain a war. Since WWI, new technological means were further developed such as the functional telegraph, railroad connections and efficient printing equipment. These fine-tuned improvements paved the way for the Germans to quickly disseminate information.
After Admiral Tirpitz of the German Navy took office as the Minister of the Navy in 1897, he created a news department within his office called Reichsmarineamt N. The N stood for Nachrichten, news. Tirpitz wanted to expand the German Navy as naval forces weren’t deeply rooted in German military tradition. Tirpitz’s goal was to enable Germany’s expanding empire overseas, but he was aware of a powerful British fleet posing as a rival. In order to build up a German fleet capable of matching the British, excessive funding was necessary. Tirpitz put his new propaganda department, Reichsmarineamt N, to work (Source No. 1).
The targets of the propaganda department include industrialists, businessmen, politicians and the like; there was little concern for workers, peasants or those possessing no political influence. Overall, it became a nationwide public relations effort.
The propaganda department executed its mission by supplying information to the German press and producing a variety of pop-culture objects such as postcards booklets, games and toys. The summarized message behind each item was that a massive naval buildup is not only good for you and your country, it is also fun (Source No. 2).
The use of propaganda wasn’t limited to one country or a single branch of an army. In the late 1930s Cedric Larson, a staff member of the Library of Congress, discovered the complete records of the Committee on Public Information (CPI). CPI happened to be the American propaganda agency throughout WWI. Larson connected with James Mock to publish the first comprehensive study on the use of propaganda during WWI.
Primarily, the U.S. government increased censorship. Larson and Mock summarize it as, “America went under censorship during the [First] World War without realizing it.” Author H.C. Peterson illustrates the significance of this use of propaganda by stating, “The propaganda [both British and American] was not only responsible in a large degree for the American entrance into the war, but it was also responsible for the temper and irrationality of the peace treaty and the vindictiveness of the post-war years” (Source No. 3).
Even during times of peace, the U.S. government worked to gain control of the airwaves. During the mid-1930s, the New Deal propaganda went into effect. Propaganda reaches beyond the dissemination of information, it also encompasses censorship and preventing certain information from surfacing.
During the time of the New Deal, the government granted the Federal Radio Commission (FRC) the ability to fine broadcasters for disobeying specific regulations. In 1933 a FRC commissioner sent out a letter to all radio stations requiring broadcasters to refuse their facilities to advertisers and sponsors who went against the National Recovery Administration (NRA) codes; part of this letter states, “It is hoped that radio stations using valuable facilities loaned to them temporarily by the government, will not unwittingly be placed in an embarrassing position because of the greed or lack of patriotism on the part of a few unscrupulous advertisers” (Source No. 4).
The increasing use of radio revealed a divide between newspapers and radio broadcasters. President Roosevelt’s well-known “fireside chats” present a new era demonstrating the political advantages of broadcasting. FDR increased the frequency of his broadcasts in time upon recognizing its success.
Some journalists and newspapers became skeptical of the president’s direct broadcasts and New Deal policies. The New York Times noted, “His use of this new instrument of political discussion is a plain hint to Congress of a recourse which the President may employ if it proves necessary to rally support for legislation for which he asks and which the lawmakers might be reluctant to give him” (Source No. 5).
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) may be the top media influencer of the twentieth century. A multitude of classified documents and information have been released in time providing insight into the manipulation and crimes committed by the trusted CIA. Perhaps two of the most notorious, classified operations include Operation Northwoods and Operation Mockingbird.
Operations Northwoods was a 1962 proposal to invoke a series of false-flag attacks on American soil in order to rally public support to invade Cuba. The proposal called for the CIA and other operatives to commit acts of terrorism in U.S. cities and elsewhere. These acts of terrorism were to be blamed on Cuba, the new communist state under the leadership of Fidel Castro. Such acts of terrorism were to include both hijackings and bombings with fraudulent evidence placing the blame on Cuba. The document states, “The desired resultant from the execution of this plan would be to place the United States in the apparent position of suffering defensible grievances from a rash and irresponsible government of Cuba and to develop an international image of a Cuban threat to peace in the Western Hemisphere” (Source No. 6).
Operation Northwoods was authorized by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, but it was never pursued after being rejected by President John F. Kennedy. In 2001, ABC published an article headlined, “U.S. Military Wanted to Provoke War With Cuba.” In the article, James Bamford, investigative journalist, notes, "The whole point of a democracy is to have leaders responding to the public will, and here this is the complete reverse, the military trying to trick the American people into a war that they want but that nobody else wants" (Source No. 7).
Operation Mockingbird was the CIA campaign to gain influence on the media beginning in the 1950s. Frank Wisner created Operation Mockingbird after being appointed as the director of the Office of Special Projects, later renamed the Office of Policy Coordination (OPC). Operation Mockingbird derived from this covert branch of the CIA and focused on “propaganda, economic warfare; preventative direct action, including sabotage, anti-sabotage, demolition and evacuation measures; subversion against hostile states, including assistance to underground resistance groups, and support of indigenous anti-Communist elements in threatened countries of the free world” (Source No. 8).
To execute the objectives of this project, Winer recruited influential names in the news industry including Phillip Graham and Walter Pincus from The Washington Post, Stuart Alsop from the New York Herald Tribune, Ben Bradlee from Newsweek, James Reston from the New York Times, Charles Douglas Jackson from Time Magazine, Charles Bartlett from the Chattanooga Times and William C. Baggs and Herb Gold from The Miami New (Source No. 9).
Many of these journalists covered international issues for their outlets and received assistance from the CIA by means of access to classified information. The 1976 Congressional hearings proved the CIA in manipulating media by paying off editors and reporters in most mainstream media outlets.
However, newspapers were not Wisner’s sole target. Wisner was dedicated to finding different ways to convince the public of the dangers of Soviet communism. Hollywood provided him with an alternative, effective outlet. In 1954, Wisner was able to gather enough funding for the Hollywood production of Animal Farm.
So we have it, propaganda has been a major factor influencing the dealings of the world. The sneaky medium of persuasion has been an advantageous tool not confined to country, region or time.
Journalism, the antithesis of propaganda, has an obligation as the unofficial fourth branch of government to expose such fraudulent claims. The journalism industry has become increasingly unstable as technology welcomes new avenues of information and communication. “... a journalist’s job is to sift the facts from the allegations, and to provide citizens with accurate and reliable information upon which they can self govern. That process is at risk. ... People are already drifting away from journalism as it has moved increasingly toward being a forum for conflict. ... This kind of journalism appeals to extremes, but it is a less reliable, less efficient way for citizens to learn and navigate their world,” Tom Rosenstiel and Bill Kovach wrote (Source No. 10).
September 11, 2001 changed America. The chaotic event was reflected through chaotic media and news coverage. How did the Iraq War stem from attacks committed by Osama bin Laden of Afghanistan? Early news reports have documented that the CIA has found no clear link between Saddam Hussein and al Qaeda, the group said to be responsible for the 9/11 attacks.
Yet, the American people were still outraged and left in disbelief from the tragic event, and they wanted justice. The Bush administration distorted facts leading up to the war and exercised its media influence to keep hold of the American psyche. Strategic war images, including the statue of Saddam falling over in Baghdad, held the public’s interest shadowing the truth. Propaganda was the key to entering the war.
Regardless of the justification for war, the major battle now consisted of obtaining control of news images. This control was the driving force behind public opinion and continuing support for the Bush administration. The Bush administration’s dominant force in the news resulted in 57 percent of Americans continuing to believe the administration, even long after reports of the contrary have been released (Source No. 11).
History demonstrates the essential need for journalism in our ever-evolving world. However, when facing issues concerning the authenticity of journalism, a proper understanding of journalism needs to be acquired. The elements of journalism (Source No. 12) are as follows:
Journalism's first obligation is to the truth.
Its first loyalty is to citizens.
Its essence is a discipline of verification.
Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they cover.
It must serve as an independent monitor of power.
It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise.
It must strive to make the significant interesting and relevant.
It must keep the news comprehensive and in proportion.
Its practitioners have an obligation to exercise their personal conscience.
Citizens, too, have rights and responsibilities when it comes to the news.
The elements of journalism provide fundamental knowledge of the industry. A grasp of these elements is necessary to distinguish journalism from propaganda and other forms of communication.
The elements also reflect the interwoven relationship between journalists and citizens. The average citizen lacks expertise on the subject and generally accepts a medium of news as journalism itself. For example, newspapers and television broadcast stations provide the majority of Americans with their news. If citizens had a more vigilant understanding of journalism, they would be able to detect faulty journalism and turn to another source for the truth.
The elements clearly state that journalism must serve as an independent monitor of power. Therefore, any intervention by any government agency, including the CIA, would negate all journalistic credibility. Transparency ranks among one of the highest characteristics of journalism. Therefore, covert government involvement in any journalistic practice instantly transforms a work of journalism into propaganda.
Mainstream media, the once-trusted means of truth, possesses the potential to become a weapon of mass destruction. Before a civilized nation is to make use of a WMD, public support is a necessity. Without such support, a country is operating against its people, which results in protests, riots and outrage.
History reveals government intervention to gain public support in the past, and it is not out of line to think something of the sort could happen again. The fact that governments have worked hard dedicating many resources to information control, demonstrates the importance of dominating influence. Manipulating the public psyche precedes the use of a traditional WMD. Therefore, the ultimate WMD can be attributed to the mass media, the fundamental tool to control the minds of the masses.
Gaining control of civilian minds is a craft to shape public opinion in order to carry out a government’s agenda. A weapon of mass destruction is capable of inflicting great numbers of human casualties over a large area. This definition for a WMD fosters the notion of mass media to qualify as a weapon of mass destruction. The Iraq War itself qualifies this argument. The Bush administration’s distortion of facts in the media has led American troops to inflict a great number of human casualties over a large area, the Middle East, since invading the country in 2003.
It’s a harsh reality, but facts provide evidence that civilians have been lied to in the past, citizens continue to be lied to in the present and this subtle side of warfare is an advanced strategy similar to economic and nutritional control strategies.
Sources
“The” Propaganda Warriors: The Wehrmacht and the Consolidation of the German Home Front, 27-28.
“The” Propaganda Warriors: The Wehrmacht and the Consolidation of the German Home Front, 29.
Radio goes to war: the cultural politics of propaganda during World War II, 16.
Radio goes to war: the cultural politics of propaganda during World War II, 17.
Radio goes to war: the cultural politics of propaganda during World War II, 18.
Northwoods and Garden Plot, 1.
ABC News: U.S. Military Wanted to Provoke War With Cuba, 1.
David Wise and Thomas Ross (1964). Invisible Government.
Northwoods and Garden Plot, 11.
Principles of American Journalism, 1.
Principles of American Journalism, 2.
The Elements of Journalism, cover page.
Works Cited
Prelas, M. A., and M. S. Peck. Nonproliferation issues for weapons of mass destruction. Florida: Marcel Dekker/CRC Press, 2005. Print.
Kovach, Bill. The Elements Of Journalism, What Newspeople Should Know And The Public Should Expect. New York: Three Rivers Pr, 2001. Print.
Levinson, Barry, dir. Wag the Dog. New Line Cinema, 1998. Film. 6 April 2013.
Lang, Peter. “The” Propaganda Warriors: The Wehrmacht and the Consolidation of the German Home Front . Germany: Die Deutsche Bibliothek, 2008. Print.
Horten, Gerd. Radio Goes to War: The Cultural Politics of Propaganda during World War II. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002. Print.
Wise, David, and Thomas B. Ross. The Invisible Government. Vintage Books Edition. Vintage Books, 1974. Print.
Ruppe, David. "U.S. Military Wanted to Provoke War With Cuba." ABC News [New York] 01 05 2001, n. pag. Web. 9 May. 2013. <http://abcnews.go.com/US/story?id=92662&page=1
"Northwoods and Garden Plot." Creative Commons Attribution, 15 10 2012. Web. 6 April 2013. <http://mikebohler.net/Library/EP0004/Northwoods and Garden Plot.pdf
Originally written for a Peace Studies course, April 2013
